UGA Extension photo/Shows botrytis disease in onion plants.
Field conditions are conducive for disease pressure to increase in Vidalia onion fields in Southeast Georgia. That’s why Chris Tyson, University of Georgia Extension Area Onion Agent at the Vidalia Onion & Vegetable Research Center in Lyons, Georgia, is imploring farmers to stay on top of their fungicide sprays.
“Looking around the fields last week, we definitely saw more disease showing up. Some of the fungal diseases like botrytis and stemphylium, we saw them showing up. That is expected this time of year,” Tyson said. “But they’re definitely showing up now that we’ve had warmer weather. We just want everybody to stay on track to manage that and all the other diseases, too.”
Excessive Rainfall
Like most of South Georgia, the Vidalia onion region received its fair amount of rainfall during February. According to the University of Georgia Weather Network, Vidalia, Georgia received 6.35 inches between Feb. 1 and Feb. 22. Then temperatures increased a week later. But this week, there was more rain, especially on Tuesday and Wednesday where 2.51 inches were recorded.
Despite the weather challenges, the onion crop looks good, overall, says Tyson. But as harvest nears, now is not the time to let up.
“We’re at a period of time in the crop where harvest for some of the early maturing onions is probably just about a month away. It seems like it’s right here, but we still have a long way to go even for those onions that will be ready soon; and then for some of the longer season ones that will be ready in six weeks or seven weeks. We still have a long way to go,” Tyson said. “We’re not out of the woods yet. We know from past experience that a lot can happen in the final few weeks before harvest. We’re keeping our fingers crossed right now because everything does look good at this point.”
According to the Alabama Extension Commercial Horticulture Facebook page, recent samples of hemp seedlings sent to the Auburn University Plant Diagnostic Lab yielded discouraging results.
Photo from Alabama Extension Commercial Horticulture Facebook page/Shows gray mold on hemp.
The seedlings and clones were infected with gray mold or Botrytis cinerea. The fungus favors a cloudy and cool environment. Hemp that is produced in greenhouses in conditions that are high in humidity are at risk to be infected by the fungus.
Gray mold develops primarily in flower buds and plant parts that are tightly-packed. The fungus is commonly found in and between buds where microclimates are humid and air flow is restricted. Bud blight is the most common symptom of gray mold observed.
Botrytis cinerea is dependent on a wound or opening in the plant tissue for infection to occur.
Proper sanitation is essential in controlling gray mold. It is especially important to start with clean plant materials.
Scouting on a regular basis will help identify potential problem areas in the greenhouse early before the disease is firmly established. If symptoms of gray mold are observed, producers need to prune and discard any tissue that is dead, dying or diseased.
Use adequate plant spacing to ensure air is properly circulated. Maintain humidity levels near 50%. Avoid irrigating the leaves and canopy, and do not over-fertilize, especially with nitrogen. Monitor and manage insects that can create wounds for the fungus to enter the plant.
Bacterial streak and bulb rot caused by Pseudomonas viridiflava. A: Foliar symptoms include water-soaked lesions and collapsed leaf tissues. The corrugated appearance is due to protruding veins in leaves. B: A blue-green appearance is occasionally observed in post-harvest rots caused by this pathogen.
By Bhabesh Dutta
The climate prevalent in the Vidalia onion zone (southeastern Georgia) is conducive to many diseases. Among the diseases, those that are caused by bacteria and fungi are the prominent ones. Some of the diseases caused by water molds or oomycetes (Pythium damping-off and downy mildew) can also be seen periodically. Based on my experience as a vegetable Extension pathologist and onion disease specialist in Georgia, I generally see a seasonality to some of the important diseases. This article covers points that relate to disease seasonality and management.
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER PROBLEMS
Onion seeds are sown around mid-September to early October on seedbeds. Some of the diseases that are normally seen during this period are Pythium damping-off and foliar blight caused by Xanthomonas leaf blight and Pantoea sp.
Bulb rot symptoms of sour skin on onion. Photo credit: David B. Langston, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org
Fungicides labeled for onion are effective against Pythium and can be used as a soil application according to the label. Use of optimum watering and avoiding seedbeds in low-lying areas of the field can also help in managing this disease.
In terms of bacterial blights in seedlings on seedbeds, some growers use copper-based bactericides that are effective. Normally, nature takes its own course. When these seedlings are transplanted in the field, carry-over bacterial disease issues from seedbeds are seldom seen. This is in part due to the cooler conditions that are prevalent during December and January, which these bacterial pathogens do not prefer.
Onion seedlings are transplanted after Thanksgiving or in late November and continue until mid-December. Diseases are not so common during these months; however, Vidalia onion growers use a preventive spray of broad-spectrum fungicides that provides a general level of protection against foliar fungal pathogens.
Foliar symptoms of yellow bud disease on onion include intense chlorosis on emerging leaves and severe blight on the older leaves. Photo credit: Ronald D. Gitaitis, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org
JANUARY/FEBRUARY DISEASES
Fungal diseases are rare during December and January, but some bacterial diseases like bacterial streak and bulb rot (causal organism: Pseudomonas viridiflava) and yellow bud (causal organism: Pseudomonas coronafaciens) can be observed in late January to late February. Use of copper-based bactericide spray, optimum nitrogen fertilization and optimum irrigation generally help in managing these diseases.
WHAT TO WATCH FOR IN MARCH
As the temperature becomes moderate in March, along with frequent rainfall, Botrytis leaf blight (causal organism: Botrytis squamosa) and purple blotch (causal organism: Alternaria porri) can be observed. Stemphylium stem blight (causal organism: Stemphylium vesicarium) can also be seen in fields that are infected with either of these fungal pathogens. In general, Stemphylium sp. appears to be a weak pathogen under Georgia conditions, and it generally follows after Botrytis leaf blight, purple blotch or other diseases. A comprehensive fungicide program [as recommended by University of Georgia Cooperative (UGA) Extension] beginning in early March until harvest maturity (mid-April) effectively manages these three fungal diseases.
During the same time, the dreadful downy mildew disease (causal organism: Peronospora destructor) can also occur. Downy mildew is sporadic but aggressive. This disease is favored by prolonged leaf moisture and cooler night temperatures.
The fungicides that are labeled for use on onion against downy mildew are either moderately effective or less effective. Rotation of some of the moderately effective fungicides from different modes of action can help. Management practices that reduce prolonged leaf moisture and promote aeration can also help. The Vidalia Onion & Vegetable Research Center and UGA Extension specialists provide weekly forecasts of conditions that are conducive for downy mildew. These weekly alerts help onion growers to preventively spray against this pathogen.
Symptoms of slippery skin include white and bleached leaves (A) and soft-rot symptoms in bulbs (B). Photo credit: Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org
Bacterial diseases appear to be prevalent and problematic during the third week of March to harvest (late April) and can carry-over to storage (cause post-harvest losses). Some of the important bacterial diseases that Vidalia onion growers encounter are center rot (causal organism/organisms: Pantoea species complex), sour skin (causal organism: Burkholderia cepacia) and slippery skin (causal organism: Burkholderia gladioli pv. allicola). Sour skin and slippery skin are generally observed around harvest maturity.
Some of the minor bacterial diseases that can also be seen around harvest maturity are Enterobacter bulb rot/decay (causal organism: Enterobacter sp.), Rahnella bulb rot (causal organism: Rahnella sp.) and Pectobacterium soft rot (causal organism: Pectobacterium sp.).
Center rot outbreaks in Georgia generally coincide with the prevalence of thrips, which usually appear in late March and continue to increase in population throughout the rest of the crop growth period. Pantoea sp. can be acquired and effectively transmitted by thrips and hence, it is postulated that center rot appears in the Vidalia onion region when both thrips and Pantoea sp. are present together. Pantoea sp. can also be seed-borne, but its importance in disease outbreak may not be significant.
The bacterium is also present on asymptomatic weeds as an epiphyte, and in most of the cases, the bacterium in non-pathogenic. However, some of the Pantoea sp. on weeds can be pathogenic on onion seedlings/plants. As far as management of this disease is concerned, an effective weed and thrips management program along with a bactericide spray (program during susceptible onion growth stages) can effectively reduce the incidence and severity of disease in foliage and bulbs.
Onion bulbs reveal damage by infection with Enterobacter cloacae. Photo credit: Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org
Sour skin and slippery skin management are quite challenging; in most cases, use of a bactericide program does not seem to effectively manage these diseases. Crop rotation may provide a limited benefit, but due to the pathogen’s natural widespread prevalence in soil, real benefits of this cultural practice are hard to achieve.
Soil amendments with solarization, biofumigants and biocontrol also provided limited benefit, especially for sour skin. The UGA Extension Bulletin on bacterial disease management recommends avoiding overhead irrigation near harvest time. Another critical recommendation is harvesting onion at the optimum level of maturity followed by field curing for a minimum of 48 hours. Infected bulbs should be graded and discarded prior to storage with other healthy appearing onions. Evaluation of cultural practices, nitrogen fertilization, irrigation regimes (type, frequency) and post-harvest treatments are underway with support from the U.S. Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture Specialty Crop Research Initiative (2019-51181-30013) and the Vidalia Onion Committee grants. Production practices that generally reduce weeds, thrips and/or other insect pests, preventing injury to the foliage/bulb, avoiding over-irrigation, along with diligent use of a fungicide and bactericide spray program will help manage these diseases.
Photo by Chris Tyson/UGA: Here is a large botrytis leaf blight lesion that has sporulated and the “cloudy halo” appears around the initial spot on the leaf. The development of these symptoms increases during periods when leaves stay wet for several hours at a time.
University of Georgia research trials show that two fungicides may be losing their efficacy in the control of Botrytis Leaf Blight of Vidalia onions.
Chris Tyson, University of Georgia Extension Area Onion Agent at the Vidalia Onion & Vegetable Research Center in Lyons, Georgia, informed onion producers and industry leaders during a webinar last week that Scala and Luna Tranquility have shown reduced efficacy in controlling Botrytis, a disease onion producers contend with every year.
“Most of this information has not changed but (Bhabesh Dutta) did stress and wanted me to mention to you about Scala and Luna. Within the last year or so, he says they have started to slip a little bit in how well they worked for Botrytis,” Tyson said. “Don’t misunderstand us. He’s not saying not to use these products. But we just want to make you aware we may take them off this list. We may rearrange them in the future to reflect that. They’re still good products. We still want you to use them.”
Disease Symptoms
Botrytis Leaf Blight infects onion foliage. Initial symptoms include white, necrotic spots surrounded by pale halos. Leaves with severe symptoms may lead to reduced bulb size.
The most updated list of effective fungicides includes Omega 500 and Miravis Prime, both of which provide high-to-moderate control. Scala provides high-to-moderate control as well, and Luna provides moderate control. But if the trend continues, UGA may adjust their recommendations to reflect the diminished efficacy of those two options.
“Keep in mind the only change in Botrytis control from last year is that those (two treatments) haven’t looked quite as good. They’re still providing control, just not at the level we thought they might be,” Tyson said.
Omega 500 is a valuable option since it controls Downy Mildew as well.
Photo by Natalia Peres/UF: Shows the effect of Neopestalotiopsis Fruit Rot on strawberries.
Neopestalotiopsis Fruit Rot has emerged as a significant disease of Florida strawberry production. Instances have increased over the last three years, to the point this year the disease was discovered in fields that had it the prior season.
But what can producers do to manage this destructive disease? Natalia Peres, a Professor of Plant Pathology at the University of Florida/IFAS Gulf Coast Research and Education Center, offered a few suggestions during the Gulf Coast Research and Education Center Field Day, to growers who are struggling with the disease year after year.
“Avoid harvesting and moving equipment through the fields when the plants are wet. That’s one of the ways the pathogen can move in the fields. I realize it is much easier to do early in the season when you don’t have a lot of fruit than once we get into the peak, which is coming soon,” Peres said.
Other Suggestions
Peres also advises producers to rotate fungicides that are found to be effective during periods of favorable conditions. Farmers also need to start planning strategies for crop inoculum termination and removal.
“I do suspect that a lot of the inoculum is surviving in the crop residue that we are incorporating in our fields,” Peres said.
Producers also have a better chance to manage the disease if they start with clean transplants.
“We do need to continue to work with our nurseries so the ones that don’t have it can stay clean,” Peres said.
Disease Instances Increasing
The disease was first discovered during the 2018-19 season in five farms and was attributed to one nursery source in North Carolina. More than 20 farms experienced the disease during the 2019-20 season, and the disease was attributed to two nursery sources early in the season in North Carolina and Canada. More than 20 farms had the disease this year.
Disease Symptoms
Neopestalotiopsis causes leaf spots on strawberry plants. It develops quickly and produces spores on the leaves. It can cause severe leaf spotting and fruit rot under favorable weather conditions.
Unfortunately, it can be hard to detect because of other similar leaf spot diseases that growers must contend with like leaf scorch, leaf blotch and Cercospora leaf spot.
A shortage of a major fungicide could have a significant impact on fruit producers in the Southeast. University of Georgia Cooperative Extension Fruit Disease Specialist Phil Brannen confirmed that Captan is in short supply right now.
Spraying being done in a peach orchard.
This is a major development for growers of strawberries, peaches, apples and grapes.
It is one of the products that strawberry producers use for Anthracnose and Botrytis. Peach producers use it to protect against Brown Rot during cover sprays in mid-season.
More pressing though, is its importance for grape and apple farmers. Brannen said it is the backbone of the spray programs for both of those commodities.
“I’m hopeful that in those commodities we’ll get some Captan in eventually. If we don’t, in those commodities, I really don’t know what to do,” said Brannen. “We’ll just spray a lot of other stuff. It will really pressure us to get resistance development because we spray so often and so long on apples and grapes.”
When Will Supplies Pick Up?
Brannen is hearing that Captan supplies will pick back up in either April or May. Apples will start blooming in late March to early April.
According to the UGA Extension Strawberry News blog, Brannen said that Thiram products can be used for disease control in strawberries. Other products are available, but Captan and Thiram mainly control Botrytis and Anthracnose.
The concern of an extended short supply of Captan cannot be understated, however.
“It’s an old fungicide. It’s been around a long time. It’s broad spectrum, so it works on a lot of different diseases. It does not develop resistance. That’s its main thing. It’s good against multiple diseases and it does not develop resistance, whereas most of the things that are really active, we try to target those when we need them and spray them as little as we can because they do develop resistance,” Brannen said. “It’s a backbone of the spray program. It’s part of what we would call our backbone for strawberries, for sure, and in large part for peach in the cover sprays it is. Then when you go to apples and grapes, it certainly is.
“If we don’t have Captan, for whatever reason … we just don’t have really good options for resistance.”
Root samples of the rootstock Solanum sisymbriifolium (left) and Roadster tomato (right) are from a field infested with southern root-knot nematode M. incognita. Galls produced by the nematode are visible on the tomato root, while the rootstock root is free from nematode damage.
By Abolfazl Hajihassani
Tomato is the most economically important vegetable crop in the United States and has a history of heavy dependence on pesticides.
PATHOGEN PAIR
Root-knot nematodes and southern blight disease are among the most damaging pathogens of tomato. Pre-plant soil fumigation is often, but not always, effective at minimizing yield losses due to soilborne nematode and fungal pathogens. The fumigant 1,3-dichloropropene is only effective against nematodes and is not effective against soilborne fungal diseases. In contrast, the nematicidal efficacy of the fumigant chloropicrin is not the primary reason for its application against nematodes, as it mainly has fungicidal activity.
Fumigants for control of these pathogens are diminishing due to environmental concerns and increasing regulations and restrictions on the use of these chemical treatments. Therefore, alternative control strategies have been extensively investigated over the past decade. Grafting tomato onto rootstocks with resistance to multiple root-knot nematode species combined with application of non-fumigant nematicides could offereffective management strategies that would provide growers with additional tools for managing root-knot nematodes. Moreover, using resistant rootstocks is one of the most effective methods to manage southern blight disease.
Using a three-year award funded in 2019 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture Methyl Bromide Transitions program, the University of Georgia (UGA) is investigating the effectiveness of a rootstock (Solanum sisymbriifolium) in managing root-knot nematodes and southern blight disease of tomato. Replicated field trials under experimental and commercial production conditions in Georgia are underway.
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are tiny parasites that feed inside roots, induce galls (which contain nematode eggs) and disturb water and nutrient uptake from the soil into the plant, thus reducing crop yields. Root-knot nematodes cause approximately $15 million in damage annually to U.S. tomato production.
In Georgia, five species of root-knot nematode are among the most important problems in tomato production. Tomato varieties with resistance to the most common species of root-knot nematodes (M. incognita, M. arenaria and M. javanica) have been released in the past, but these cultivars often lack resistance to other nematode species like M. enterolobii and M. haplanaria and to southern blight disease. Heirloom cultivars are particularly sensitive.
Southern blight, caused by the fungus Athelia rolfsii, is a necrotrophic pathogen commonly found in many areas of the southeastern United States. Tomato plants infected with A. rolfsii wilt permanently in soil with a high level of pathogen inoculum, resulting in significant economic losses to growers.
Roadster tomato grafted onto the rootstock Solanum sisymbriifolium (left) and non-grafted tomato (right) in the field are infested with southern blight. More than 80 percent of the non-grafted plants were dead by the end of the growing season.
ROOTSTOCK TO THE RESCUE
Grafting onto rootstocks resistant to southern blight can reduce the disease incidence and increase yield. Currently, the Maxifort rootstock, which carries resistance to southern blight, is commercially available. It also contains the Mi-1 gene that confers moderate resistance to species of M. incognita, M. arenaria and M. javanica.
In UGA greenhouse studies, S. sisymbriifolium was challenged with M. incognita, M. arenaria, M. haplanaria and M. enterolobii. Results showed that it confers a high level of resistance to all four root-knot species. These results were also confirmed in microplot and field experiments using M. incognita species. The data suggest the importance of using S. sisymbriifolium as a resistant rootstock for effective management of these devastating nematodes in infested tomato fields.
However, since grafted tomatoes are more expensive than non-grafted ones, growers will probably want to use rootstocks with resistance to multiple pathogens to minimize the production costs associated with application of multiple pesticides. Using a field study conducted in the summer of 2020, S. sisymbriifolium rootstock was found to be resistant to A. rolfsii. Field plots grown with tomato grafted on therootstock had significantly fewer dead plants compared to plots transplanted with non-grafted tomatoes.
The next step in the research studies will be to evaluate the combined use of grafting and nematicides and/or fungicides to manage effectively both root-knot nematode and southern blight in tomato. Efforts will also include a cost-return analysis of the control practices developed in this project to compare with growers’ practices for disease management.
Photo taken by Jonathan Oliver/UGA: Shows bacterial wilt disease in a blueberry plant.
A blueberry disease that has impacted the Florida industry since 2016 was found in Georgia for the first time in 2020. While there is no cure for bacterial wilt, producers can apply preventative measures to slow down the disease’s progression.
“In Florida, they seem to be having increasing problems with it year after year, probably because the bacteria spreads so easily from farm to farm or even within a farm. It spreads by soil, water, anything that picks up soil or water can move the disease around,” said Jonathan Oliver, University of Georgia (UGA) assistant professor and small fruits pathologist.
Disease Background
Bacterial wilt was first identified in three separate locations in Florida in 2016. The disease was observed for the first time on Georgia blueberries last year at two locations in Clinch County.
Initial symptoms of the disease include marginal leaf necrosis, wilting and plant death, sometimes as quickly as three weeks after infection. Farmers need to be wary that symptoms can resemble bacterial leaf scorch or phytophthora root rot.
Certain Cultivars More Susceptible
Unfortunately, certain cultivars are more susceptible than others, including Arcadia, Indigocrisp and Keekrisp. Cultivars that are moderately susceptible include Emerald, Farthing and Meadowlark.
“It looks like based on what they’ve seen in Florida that certain cultivars have much bigger problems with it. Unfortunately, those are cultivars that are increasingly being grown in Florida and also in Georgia because they have other traits that are good,” Oliver said.
“The more we grow of those cultivars, we definitely will probably see more issues with bacteria wilt. But we may also see it just due to spread. We don’t really have a good handle on what it’s going to look like in Georgia. But in Florida, every year a few more farms are found. I think it’s fairly widespread in parts of Florida now.”
Management relies mainly on prevention; keeping the pathogen out or limiting the movement of infected plants, equipment and soil between farms. Infected plant materials need to be burned.
Citrus greening remains a focal point of research at the University of Florida/IFAS. Florida’s citrus producers are counting on research to help sustain what’s left of an industry decimated by Huanglongbing (also known as HLB or citrus greening).
Photo taken by UF/IFAS shows the small size-effect HLB can have on citrus.
Scott Angle, Vice President for Agriculture and Natural Resources at the UF/IFAS, understands the ramifications if improved management options aren’t available soon.
“Citrus greening has obviously devastated the industry in this state. We’re down to less than half of production. That’s despite having spent almost a billion dollars on this disease. To me, it’s hard to imagine, we spend a billion dollars, and we can’t solve a problem,” Angle said.
“It is so complex that it’s just been hard to find those tools that will allow us to manage the disease better. At this point, I don’t even know that we’re looking for a cure. We’re just looking to try to manage the citrus trees in a way that they can hang on longer. So when we do find that cure, that silver bullet that’s not obvious to us at this point; then we can keep those farmers in business.”
Disease Background
Click here for more information about the disease that is transmitted by the Asian citrus psyllid. Symptoms include asymmetrical yellowing of leaves and leaf veins. Later symptoms include twig dieback and decreased fruit production. What fruit a tree produces is often small, lopsided and unmarketable. Fruit will also drop prematurely from infected trees.
Examining the Problem at All Angles
UF/IFAS is examining the problem from multiple angles.
Led by Claudio Gonzalez, a UF/IFAS microbiology and cell science professor, a team of plant pathologists, horticulturists and citrus breeders have identified new management tactics that have slowed the spread of the bacterium.
Ute Albrecht, Ramdas Kanissery and Sarah Strauss, assistant professors at the UF/IFAS Southwest Florida Research and Education Center, are collaborating with University of California-Riverside on a $10 million grant to examine root decline associated with trees infected with citrus greening.
In another research focused on HLB, Lorenzo Rossi, an assistant professor at the UF/IFAS Indian River Research and Education Center (IRREC), and Jawwad Quershi, an assistant professor at UF/IFAS SWFREC, will collaborate with the U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service on a grant to examine different ways to deliver therapeutic growing methods to citrus growers.
“We’re going to continue to help citrus farmers stay in business until we can find longer term cures for this. We’ve got all kinds of things we’re looking at; proteins we might spray in the tree that might interact with the psyllid that can spread the organism. We’ve got other people looking at breeding efforts to try to find rootstocks that might be a little more resistant to it,” Angle said. “Then we’re especially looking at nutrition and irrigation as ways to help keep these plants alive for just a little longer, hoping for that day when the cure is here.”
AUBURN UNIVERSITY, Ala. – Whether you’re an amateur gardener or seasoned agriculturalist, there is no denying that pests can sometimes sneak in and ruin a crop. These pests may appear in the form of insects, weeds or plant diseases — and all can be detrimental. Current and former Alabama Cooperative Extension System entomologists, weed scientists, plant pathologists and a pesticide education specialist have compiled an updated list of 2021 integrated pest management guides to keep these pests out of your crop.
Sikora
What Are IPM Guides?
IPM guides, or integrated pest management guides, are updated annually with information usually pertaining to herbicides, insecticides and fungicides that can be used to manage pests on plants.
“They may also include other pest management techniques such as cultural practices and disease resistant varieties that may be appropriate for certain insect pests and plant diseases,” said Alabama Extension plant pathologist and alumni professor Ed Sikora.
The 2021 IPM guides are available for access and download on the Alabama Extension website. The guides include recommendations for commercial horticultural crops; commercial turfgrass; homeowners’ lawns and ornamental and garden crops; houses, buildings and grounds; major row crops; noncropland, commercial trees and ornamental crops; pastures and forage crops and small and stored grains.
Why Are They Important?
The availability of pesticides, as well as application recommendations, are constantly changing, ensuring the need for these annual IPM guides and their up-to-date information. Each guide contains information about the selection, rates, application and proper use.
The 2021 IPM guides allow for the best management decisions to be made for crops or gardens. They are there to help avoid what Sikora warns are “unnecessary and sometimes expensive mistakes.”
“These guides are an excellent resource, and anybody that uses pesticides should have a copy in their truck or have the website easily accessible on their phone or computer,” Sikora said.
Anyone applying these pesticides should make sure to read the manufacturer’s label for directions on proper use and product restrictions. Reading labels ensures the safest application of the product in combination with recommendations included in the IPM guides.
More Information
For more information and access to the integrated pest management guides, visit the IPM page on the Alabama Extension website.
